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In the Willamette Valley, Oregon USA, annual rainfall is about 1100 mm. There is a strong winter–spring incidence with a dry summer (Figure 2.1). Rainfall during the critical period of fertilisation and kernel-fill, May and June in Corvallis, is on average, less than 100 mm. http://www.twinoroasters.com/

As hazelnuts are not generally irrigated in this region, it appears they are very likely to be drawing from soil moisture reserves at depth to maintain growth and production in the summer, as discussed later in the section on soils, Section 2.1.2. Hazelnuts are sensitive to hot dry conditions, low humidity and rainfall deficits in summer. Thompson (1981) reported that temperatures greater than 35°C with low humidity can cause leaf burn. 

The climate of the Willamette Valley is considered to be ideal with temperatures in summer reaching 20-28°C, rarely exceeding 33°C and with cool nights of 8-16°C (ibid, 1981). Climate data recorded over a 30-year period for Corvallis indicates that on average there are only two days per year when temperatures exceed 35°C (Taylor et al., 1991). In the Catalonia region of Spain, summer temperatures of 30-35°C are commonly recorded with an annual rainfall of 400-600 mm. 

In the Reus area of this region, crops are irrigated with an average of 2.5 ML/ha (Tous, 2005). When assessing the most appropriate part of France to develop a hazelnut industry, Bergoughoux et al. (1978) considered rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and wind to be key factors. They were of the opinion that an annual rainfall of 1000 mm was required, although it could be lower if supplementary irrigation was available.

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The rainfall should ideally be well-distributed throughout the year, but dry conditions were desirable for the 29 period of nut fall and harvest, from mid-September to mid-October. 

They considered the critical temperatures for winter were a minimum no lower than -15°C, to avoid damage to buds and dormant inflorescences, a minimum of -7°C, to avoid damage to dehiscing catkins and of -3°C in spring, to avoid damage to young shoots after bud break. Under conditions of high evaporative stress, such as hot dry winds, hazelnuts become moisturestressed. http://nutsroasters.com/ 

Districts where the relative humidity was less than 70% were considered undesirable. Persistent strong winds were also undesirable. Using these parameters, Germain and Sarraquigne (2004) used long-term climate data to prepare a map showing the area in south-west France where they considered the climate to be suitable for hazelnut production. 

The studies presented in this section on the effects of climate on flowering, growth and production have been used to develop a set of critical climate indices, Table 2.1 which could be used to assess the potential suitability of districts in Australia for hazelnut production. http://www.twinoroasters.com/ 

The Commonwealth Bureau of Meteorology has a comprehensive data base of climatic averages for weather stations across Australia which can be accessed at www.bom.gov.au/climate/data/ and which potential growers could use to assess the suitability of their location for hazelnut growing.

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 OZSTAR has the best roasters of various capacities to give you the perfectly roasted peanuts! We also provide additional equipment for flavouring and seasoning the nuts. OZSTAR also provides additional flavoring and seasoning equipment for https://www.ozstarmachinery.com/ nuts We manufacture different capacity to suit demand. This stainless steel is of high quality and can be controlled from the touch screen control panel. The chill and post chill warmth requirements for flowering and bud break are discussed further in Chapter 6. 

Although pollination occurs in winter, fertilisation does not occur until early summer. The weather conditions at the time of fertilisation are critical. In France, Latorse (1981) found that there was a decrease in nut set and an increase in the number of blank nuts when the maximum day temperatures in the second week of June (early summer) were less than 21°C. In Australia, the period when fertilisation is likely to occur is in late November or early December, probably varying with seasons, localities and cultivars.

 In the Vila Real region of northern Portugal, Silva et al. (1996) found negative correlations between the hours of sunshine, the maximum temperature in May, and the number of blank (empty) nuts in the cultivar ‘Butler’.  https://www.ozstarmachinery.com/ These effects of temperature and sunshine on kernel development may be related to a critical period in the development of the hazelnut tree, when fertilisation and early kernel development is occurring whilst shoots are still making active growth. Active photosynthesis would be required to produce materials for these processes. Hazelnuts are very sensitive to moisture stress (Tombesi, 1994). 

http://www.twinoroasters.com/ Soil moisture stress during the spring months can reduce vegetative growth and consequently affect nut 28 production in the following year. Soil moisture stress during nut development and kernelfill can reduce nut weights, nut yields and kernel-fill (Bignami and Natali, 1997).

 

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The most critical period is the time from fertilisation to kernel fill, which is from the end of May to mid July in the Northern Hemisphere (Mingeau et al., 1994). Irrigation is used in some instances to overcome soil moisture stress in this period such as at Reus in Spain (Gispert et al., 2005) where total rainfall in May and June is on average less than 120 mm. In general, 800 mm seems to be the minimum level of annual rainfall for productive unirrigated orchards (Tous et al. 1994).

http://nutsroasters.com/ However, this depends on soil type and seasonal distribution of rainfall. On the southern coast of Crimea an annual rainfall of over 1000 mm is considered desirable (Khokhlov, 2001).

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OZSTAR has the best roasters of various capacities to give you the perfectly roasted peanuts! We also provide additional equipment for flavouring and seasoning the nuts. OZSTAR also provides additional flavoring and seasoning equipment for nuts We manufacture different capacity to suit demand. 

This stainless steel is of high quality and can be controlled from the touch screen control panel. The mean monthly temperature patterns at both Myrtleford and Orange are similar to the four overseas locations, suggesting that these Australian localities would have suitable climates for hazelnut production. http://nutsroasters.com/ 

Mean annual rainfall varies from a low of 518 mm in Reus, where hazelnut orchards are irrigated, to over 1000 mm in Giresun and Corvallis, where hazelnuts are grown without irrigation. Although mean monthly temperature patterns are similar across all these centres, the pattern of rainfall distribution varies between them. http://nutsroasters.com/ 

The rainfall at Giresun is fairly evenly distributed, with no month receiving less than 50 mm. In contrast, Corvallis and Viterbo receive the majority of their rainfall in the autumn and winter months with little rainfall in the summer months of June, July and August. The implications of low rainfall in June and July, when nuts and kernels are developing, are discussed later in this thesis. http://www.twinoroasters.com/

 

All the northern hemisphere centres have more than 50 mm of rainfall in May, when trees would be making active leaf and shoot growth. It is recognised that data is required on evaporation rates and soil water-holding capacity to estimate soil moisture availability in the growing season; this is discussed further in the next section, 2.1.2, Soils.

Studies on the effects of climate on hazelnut production indicate that although the European hazelnut is a deciduous woody plant, it can be damaged by extremes of cold in winter. In winter, dormant hazelnuts can tolerate temperatures down to -23°C (Thompson, 1981), although Schuster (1944) reported temperatures of -15°C to be damaging to dormant catkins. 

Extended catkins are less cold tolerant, but can tolerate temperatures down to -8°C (Germain, 1986) with female inflorescences tolerating temperatures down to -10°C (Tous, 2001). 

However, Thompson (1981) reported that female stigmas that were frozen at temperatures of -12°C to -15°C proceeded normally as temperatures rose. In Romania, Botu and Turcu (2001) reported the catkins, female flowers and one year-old shoots were damaged during winter when temperatures fell below -27°C. 

Duke (1989) suggested that, in order to minimise the risks of damage from low temperatures, sites in which winter temperatures did not fall below -5°C should be selected Chilling temperatures in the range 0-7°C are required to break the dormancy of catkins, female inflorescences and vegetative buds (Mehlenbacher, 1991).

The chill requirements vary with cultivars. Vegetative buds have the highest requirement; up to 1550 hours for the cultivar ‘Casina’ (ibid, 1991). http://www.twinoroasters.com/

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The general aim of this thesis was to answer the following questions: · What are the relative merits of the main hazelnut cultivars available for commercial production in Australia? · How do environmental conditions affect the growth, phenology and productivity of hazelnut cultivars? · What is the productive potential of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) in Australia? In order to address these questions, a range of hazelnut cultivars and local selections were grown at 5 field sites in south-eastern Australia. http://nutsroasters.com/ 

Two sites were in New South Wales, 2 in Victoria and 1 in Tasmania, with some controlled temperature studies on floral phenology in growth cabinets at Orange. http://www.twinoroasters.com/ The European hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is native to Europe and Asia Minor and is commonly found growing as wild plants throughout these regions. The natural distribution of this species and its rich genetic diversity indicates its potential for production over a wide range of temperate environments (Mehlenbacher, 1991). 

However, quite specific climate and soil conditions appear to be needed for commercial production, which occurs in specific geographic regions. OZSTAR has the best roasters of various capacities to give you the perfectly roasted peanuts! We also provide additional equipment for flavouring and seasoning the nuts. 

OZSTAR also provides additional flavoring and seasoning equipment for nuts We manufacture different capacity to suit demand. This stainless steel is of high quality and can be controlled from the touch screen control panel. http://www.twinoroasters.com/

 

To achieve high commercial yields in new areas, there is a need to understand how the species responds to environmental conditions and how cultivars perform in a given locality. 

The productivity of crop plants in general is influenced by: · the environment in which the crop is grown; · the physiology of the crop species and its management; · the genetics of the crop species; and · interactions between these. To gain a better understanding of the potential of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) in Australia, this literature review is written in 4 main parts. 

The first part provides a review of the influence of climate and soils on hazelnut production. The second part reviews the factors influencing growth, the reproductive processes, nut yields and kernel quality. The third part focuses on the performance of specific cultivars and the effect of the environment on their performance. http://nutsroasters.com/ Finally, there is an overall conclusion that covers the first 3 parts. 

The main areas of commercial hazelnut production are in maritime, Mediterranean-type climates in the latitude range 40-45°N, with mild, humid winters and cool summers (Mehlenbacher, 1991). Examples of the monthly temperature and rainfall for key regions of production in Turkey (Giresun), Italy (Viterbo), Spain (Reus) and Oregon (Corvallis) (Figure 2.1) illustrate the nature of these climates. 

The summer temperatures of the key centres are relatively mild, with mean maximum temperatures in the range 25-30°C and mean minimum temperatures in the winter in the range 0-5°C (Figure 2.1).

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Although he was of the opinion that in the short-term the in-shell market was the most important, he considered that in the long-term the kernel market would be more important. https://www.ozstarmachinery.com/ 

He suggested that each State should have its own replicated variety trials to assess material for both the in-shell and kernel markets and that there was a need to define the most suitable ecological areas for hazelnut growing in Australia.

In 1990, the author of this thesis moved to Orange, NSW and, along with his wife, commenced some studies on the collection of hazelnut genotypes at the Orange Agricultural Research Centre (Baldwin and Baldwin, 1991). 

In 1996, funding was received from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) to conduct an evaluation of the growth and productivity of hazelnut genotypes in Southeastern Australia.

At that time, the total production of hazelnuts in Australia was estimated to be approximately 25 tonnes of nut in-shell per annum, with several small orchards existing in cool climatic areas of South-eastern Australia, principally in the hills to the west of Melbourne, the river valleys of NE Victoria and on the Central Tablelands of New South Wales. There were very few plantations in Tasmania. 

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Although hazelnuts had been introduced into Australia in the 1800s, RIRDC considered the crop to have potential and placed it in the category of “New Crops” due to the small size of the industry and the lack of research conducted on this species. The project was supported by RIRDC on the basis that it could provide valuable information for the further development of the industry.

 The research that was funded by RIRDC and supported by the University of Sydney and the Hazelnut Growers of Australia forms the basis of this thesis. https://www.ozstarmachinery.com/ Although many hazelnut cultivars have been introduced to Australia, particularly since the 1980s, there has been very little systematic evaluation of this imported material and the factors influencing production, or comparisons made with local selections. 

Apart from a small industry in north-eastern Victoria in the 1930s and a number of small orchards scattered through Victoria and NSW, hazelnut growing had not advanced as an industry. Why was this? 

Was it due to a lack of knowledge on the most appropriate cultivars to grow and the appropriate pollenisers for them or was it that hazelnuts are not well-adapted to the soils and climate of the cool temperate areas of south-eastern Australia and do not produce commercially viable yields?

 An evaluation of cultivars and their growth under a range of environmental conditions is a fundamental need in the early stages of industry development. http://nutsroasters.com/

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OZSTAR has the best roasters of various capacities to give you the perfectly roasted peanuts! We also provide additional equipment for flavouring and seasoning the nuts. OZSTAR also provides additional flavoring and seasoning equipment for nuts We manufacture different capacity to suit demand. This stainless steel is of high quality and can be controlled from the touch screen control panel. https://www.ozstarmachinery.com/ During the 1970s, there was a renewed interest in hazelnut growing in Australia, particularly in Victoria, where, in 1978, enthusiastic growers decided to establish the Victorian Hazelnut Growers Association (Allen, 1989).

During the 1970s and 1980s, many cultivars of European and North American origin were introduced into Australia through the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) by enthusiastic growers, propagators and the Victorian Department of Agriculture (Baldwin, 1997). http://nutsroasters.com/  In the period 1980-1994, there were 108 introductions of Corylus species through AQIS, as rooted plants and scion wood. http://nutsroasters.com/ The imported material was grown in government or approved private post-entry quarantine facilities for a minimum of 9 months, during which time the plants were visually screened for pests and diseases. https://www.ozstarmachinery.com/

 

Although more than 80% of these cultivars were introduced into Victoria, the introduction of hazelnut cultivars into Australia has been uncoordinated and, consequently, many 21 cultivars have been imported more than once, often to the same State. For example, the cultivar ‘Casina’ was introduced on 7 occasions between 1984 and 1994 (Table 1.2). http://www.twinoroasters.com/  The identity of importers is kept confidential by AQIS, making it difficult to source cultivars for research. Records of plant introductions are no longer available from AQIS. http://nutsroasters.com/ 

 During the 1980s, collections of hazelnut cultivars were established by the Victorian Department of Agriculture at the Ovens and Toolangi Research Centres. Although these were useful collections, there was little systematic evaluation of the material at these sites. However, Sample (1993) reported that ‘Atlas’ out-yielded all other cultivars at Ovens, with yields of up to 4 kg/tree. 

At Toolangi, 'good crops' were reported 12 years after planting from the cultivars ‘Atlas’, ‘Barcelona’, ‘Cosford’ (‘Cob’), ‘Du Provence’, ‘Royal Italian’, ‘Wanliss Pride’ and ‘White American’ (Kenez 1993). http://nutsroasters.com/ 

In 1988, Professor Lagerstedt from the USA was the guest speaker at the first Australian Nut Conference. Professor Lagerstedt had many years of experience in hazelnut growing and research and at that time had recently retired from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in Oregon. He had close connections with the Oregon State University and its breeding program. http://www.twinoroasters.com/ He visited several hazelnut farms in Australia as well as the research sites at Toolangi and Ovens.

 He considered that the cultivar ‘Wanliss Pride’ was worthy of promotion for both the in-shell market, due to its large size and attractive appearance, and also for the kernel market, due to the good blanching characteristics and sweet flavour of its kernels (Lagerstedt, 1990). In general, he considered the cultivar situation in Australia was in a state of chaos with some nurseries selling seedling trees. http://nutsroasters.com/